“Takeoffs are optional, landings are mandatory.” Author Unknown.
“Landings are simply a transition from flying to taxiing.” Scott Capener.
A student pilot spends the bulk of their private pilot training learning to land. Normal landings, crosswind landings, short-field landings, soft-field landings, no-flap landings and emergency landings, all are covered and reviewed. The goal of flight instructors is not to train until the student gets the task right, but to train until the student cannot get the task wrong.
FAA test standards are published and should be considered the minimum standard to be met consistently prior to the instructor’s endorsement for the check-ride. Sadly, for most pilots, their skill level is at its peak at the check-ride. After getting their private license, most pilots go from flying several times a week, to barely staying current. My flight school requires renters to complete a minimum of three take-offs and landings in every 30 days to rent aircraft, rather than the FAA’s 90-day requirement to remain current. Frankly, three take-offs and landings a month is not sufficient to maintain one’s proficiency, let alone to improve on one’s skills.
At a recent FAA Safety Team (FAAST) seminar, Milwaukee FSDO official, Jurg Grossenbacher, shared the accident reports for 2024. The bulk of these accidents occurred during landing. Clearly the problem of accidents on landing needs to be addressed. This article will break down the steps to making a good and safe landing. This will be a review for all pilots and hopefully remind us of aspects of landing that may have been forgotten.
Altitude, Airspeed and Alignment: the keys to good landings.
Most every pilot has heard the above adage or a variation of it. On altitude, on track, on speed is another way to put it. Most understand what these terms mean, yet are uncertain how to achieve on altitude, on track, and on airspeed consistently.
Definitions:
Altitude: The appropriate altitude for the portion of the landing pattern.
Airspeed: The correct airspeed for each segment of the landing pattern.
Alignment: On final approach, the aircraft needs to be on — and tracking — the extended centerline of the runway.
Being on “altitude” begins in the traffic pattern. Landing pattern size varies for a variety of reasons. The pattern size expands when more aircraft are in the pattern. Towered airports often extend patterns to accommodate departures and arrivals. No matter your entry into the pattern, the goal is to be at pattern altitude on downwind. Straight-in landings complicate the process, as do extended downwinds, as often required by control towers or traffic.
Using the example of a Cessna 172 at a pilot-controlled airport, the aircraft will be at pattern altitude on downwind leg until opposite the point of intended touch down on the selected runway. At this point, power is reduced to approach setting. I teach power-off landings and how to establish approach speed prior to descending from pattern altitude.
In a power-on approach to landing, the deceleration occurs over a longer period. More on airspeeds later.
It is imperative that the pilot be as consistent as possible. Being at pattern altitude, at a consistent point opposite the point of intended touchdown and a consistent distance from the runway at power reduction, eliminates variables and will result in the best possible landings. When situations dictate a nonstandard pattern, it is incumbent on the pilot to adjust.
Straight-in approaches should be avoided at pilot-controlled airports and are often assigned at tower-controlled airports. If assigned a straight-in approach, I suggest waiting until the PAPI lights for the assigned runway are all white before starting a descent and setting up your approach speed. This works well for light aircraft, which typically descend at a steeper rate than heavy aircraft. Heavy aircraft will be better served by setting up their descent at red, white indication and following the visual glideslope indicator. This technique also works well when assigned a cross-country sized pattern at a control towered airport. Using the PAPI lights gives pilots a consistent starting point.
As an example, assuming a calm day at a pilot-controlled airport flying a Cessna 172. Power is reduced opposite the point of touch down, the pilot will hold pattern altitude initially with back pressure, add 10 degrees of flaps and adjust nose up trim to hold approach speed “hands off” that is with no pilot elevator input.
Approach speed is determined by manufacturers recommendation found in the pilot’s operating handbook (POH). The FAA suggests 1.3 times stall speed in the landing configuration. This speed (VSo) is marked on the aircraft’s airspeed indicator as the bottom of the white arc. Multiply this number by 1.3 to get the approach speed IF the manufacturer’s POH does not supply an approach speed. If the manufacturer supplies an approach speed, use it! Once the aircraft reaches approach speed, descent begins. At the 45-degree point off the touchdown zone, the aircraft turns base. In a C172, that takes about 200 feet. Assuming a standard 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) pattern, the aircraft will turn base at about 800 feet AGL. Once established on base leg, the pilot is in the key position. At key position, the pilot checks altitude, distance from the runway, then asks him/herself, am I high, low, or about, right? If you are high, consider adding flaps… If low, add power… If about right, then continue with the approach and land. Target being 600 feet AGL when turning onto final.
When changing configuration, be it adding flaps or power, the pilot will need to adjust trim or elevator input to hold airspeed. For our purposes here, pitch controls airspeed and power or drag, such as flaps or slips, control altitude. The ideal power-off approach holds a consistent airspeed from shortly after power reduction until over the runway threshold. Again, think of airspeed as being controlled by the aircraft’s pitch attitude, and altitude or more precisely your rate of sink, controlled by power or flaps/slips. Adding power, reduces sink… Reducing power, increases sink… And adding drag in the form of flaps or slips, increases sink. This assumes a constant airspeed.
On Final Approach
To determine if the aircraft is on altitude on final, the pilot will need to interpret what they are seeing in the windscreen. Pick an aiming point. The runway numbers are a convenient one, or in a short field, pick a spot 200 feet or so in front of the desired touch down spot. Hold approach speed by holding pitch in a consistent configuration. Notice if the target is rising, sinking, or remaining in the same place on the windscreen. If the target is rising, then the aircraft’s natural glide path will terminate short of the selected target. At approach speed and constant configuration, an aircraft has a consistent glide path. Add power and the glide path flattens… Reduce power, or add drag, and the glide path steepens. The solution to the aiming point rising and the aircraft sinking relative to its glide path is to add power while keeping a constant pitch. A constant pitch will maintain a constant airspeed. Add enough power to stop the aiming point from continuing to rise. As was said earlier, adding power flattens the natural glide path, which extends the glide. If the aiming point is sinking, then the aircraft’s natural glide path terminates down the runway from the selected aiming point. Reducing power or adding drag will steepen the glide path, making the glide path terminate at or closer to the aiming point. Undershooting or overshooting the aiming point indicates that the aircraft is NOT on altitude. Being considerably off, altitude becomes a problem IF A CONSTANT AIRSPEED IS NOT MAINTAINED! Pilots who find themselves low will risk a stall accident if they pitch up (which results in a loss of airspeed), rather than add power. A pilot who is high and pitches nose down, will gain airspeed. This could easily result in running off the end of the runway. If the pilot tries to force the aircraft onto the runway at above approach speed, they will likely bounce or porpoise. Many aircraft have been damaged, and pilots and passengers have been hurt or killed because of accidents like this. IF a constant airspeed is maintained, then it will be clear when a go-around is needed. Interestingly, pilots have more problems with landings on calm days. This is because some pilots are reluctant to land with full flaps. Instead of adding drag, they will push the aircraft down to be on altitude, increasing their speed.
Round Off & Flair
Once you have arrived at the runway threshold on speed due to pitch control, and on altitude due to your use of power and drag items, you now must land. You have set yourself up for success, but now what? The key to consistently good landings is vision, more specifically where to look. During the round off, which is the process of reducing the aircraft’s descent rate, and subsequently the airspeed by gently pitching up, the pilot’s focus should be half to three quarters of the way down the runway. “Nose up. eyes up” as one of my students is fond of saying. The goal here is to not only look further down the runway, but also to open up the pilot’s peripheral vision. Peripheral vision is what gives us depth perception and allows pilots to see the sink rate. Once the aircraft is in ground effect, and the sink rate has been slowed to almost a stop, the flair begins. In the flair, the aircraft is skimming the runway. The pilot should be looking at the horizon at this time, not at any one thing, but at all things. This is referred to as “soft focus” and allows peripheral vision to be at its maximum.
With a soft focus on the horizon and an awareness of the peripheral vision, a pilot can see very small changes in sink rate and track. This awareness is crucial in making safe and consistent landings. Many pilots look at the runway or runway centerline just in front of the nose, rather than looking long. Pilots who do this may luck out with a good landing now and again, but will often land flat, as in on all three tires at once rather than on the mains first. Pilots who look short have real difficulty with crosswind landings. In addition, once the round off has commenced, there is NO reason to look anywhere but down the runway. Specifically, do not look at the airspeed or vertical speed indicators! Also, keep those eyes outside the cockpit and looking down the runway until turning off at a taxiway. Follow through on rollout. Too many pilots give up positively controlling their aircraft once it touches down.
None of this works if the aircraft is not aligned with the runway. To be on track means to be tracking the extended centerline of the runway from turning on final to touch down. In a crosswind, holding center line will require either flying with the aircraft’s nose turned into the wind, (a crab), or using a side slip. Please see my article on “crosswind landings” (https://midwestflyer.com/crosswind-landings-theory-practice/). When turning final, do not simply turn and point at the approach end of the runway, but rather imagine the extended centerline of the runway and plan the turn to roll out on that center line. If you are uncomfortable with the overshoot or undershoot of the final turn, simply go around. The first time in the pattern is for calibration, adjust as needed for conditions and try it again!
In summary, to make consistently good landings, a pilot needs to be on altitude throughout the approach, on airspeed appropriate for each leg of the approach, and on track of the extended centerline of the runway once the pilot has turned on final. Constant airspeed is for our purposes controlled by pitch. Sink rate is controlled by power and drag, such as flaps and slips. On final, maintain on altitude by picking a target such as the runway numbers, and observing if the target rises, falls or stays in the same spot on the windscreen while maintaining approach speed.
For consistently good landings, it is crucial to look down the runway and open up the pilot’s peripheral vision in both the round off and flair. Be sure to continue positive control of the aircraft during the roll out.
Be safe, get regular training, and practice!
DISCLAIMER: The information contained in this column is the expressed opinion of the author only. Readers are advised to seek the advice of their personal flight instructor, aircraft technician, and others, and refer to the Federal Aviation Regulations, FAA Aeronautical Information Manual, and instructional materials concerning any procedures discussed herein.
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